A History of Ancient Egypt

There exist countless pictures of humans from ancient Egypt, but it is clear they were not intended as accurate portraits, except from late examples from Ptolemaic and Roman times. Men and women appear in standardized depictions where physical features, hairdos, clothing, and even posture characterize them as Egyptians. The representations of foreigners are equally uniform : Nubians have dark skins and braided hair, while Syrians have lighter skins and pointed beards. Clothing also sets apart various peoples. The artists were intent upon showing the opposition between Egyptians and foreigners, not to make clear their individual appearances. The perception of who was Egyptian could change according to the intended audiences. For example, a prince from Upper Nubia in the XIV° century, Hekanefer, appears in two different guises. In the tomb of the Egyptian viceroy at Thebes Hekanefer has typical Nubian features and dress, while in his own burial in Nubia he looks fully Egyptian (fig 1.1). He wanted his people to see him as a member of the Egyptian ruling class, whereas to the Egyptian viceroy of his country he was Nubian subject, clearly distinct from Egyptians.

pp. 5-6

A man has perished : his corpse is dust,
and his people have passed from the land ;
it is a book which makes him remembered
in the mouth of a speaker.
More excellent is a papyrus roll than a built house,
than a chapel in the west.
It is better tahn an establisehd villa,
than a stele in a temple.

Eloge des scribes, XIX° dynastie, p. 97